---
title: "Kristallnacht"
description: "Discover the history of Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass, the nationwide anti-Jewish pogrom of 9–10 November 1938 that marked a turning point toward the Holocaust."
url: "https://www.normandy1944.info/home/key-events/kristallnacht"
date: "2026-07-11T15:29:11+00:00"
language: "en-GB"
---

![SA members enforce the nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses in Germany on 1 April 1933, marking one of the first organised acts of Nazi persecution.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/SA_members_enforce_the_nationwide_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses_in_Germany_on_1_April_1933_marking_one_of_the_first_organised_acts_of_Nazi_persecution.jpg)

#  Kristallnacht

### The Night of Broken Glass

The nationwide pogrom of 9–10 November 1938 that marked a decisive turning point in the persecution of Germany's Jewish population.

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- [Kristallnacht](#)

**Kristallnacht**, also known as the **Night of Broken Glass** or the **November Pogroms**, was a coordinated wave of anti-Jewish violence carried out across **Nazi Germany**, **Austria** and the **Sudetenland** on **9–10 November 1938**. Synagogues were burned, Jewish businesses and homes were destroyed, people were assaulted and murdered, and more than 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps. The pogrom marked the transition from legal discrimination and economic exclusion to organised physical violence against the Jewish population, paving the way for the [**Holocaust**](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust).

### Quick Facts

**Event:** Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass or November Pogroms
**Date:** 9–10 November 1938
**Locations:** Nazi Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland
**Immediate pretext:** The assassination of German diplomat **Ernst vom Rath** by **Herschel Grynszpan**
**Perpetrators:** **SA** and **SS** forces, members of the **Hitler Youth**, Nazi Party organisations and participating civilians
**Synagogues attacked:** More than 1,400 synagogues and Jewish prayer rooms were damaged, burned or destroyed
**Businesses damaged:** Approximately 7,500 Jewish-owned shops were looted and vandalised
**Mass arrests:** More than 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps
**Fatalities:** At least 91 people were reported murdered during the attacks, while hundreds more died from injuries, mistreatment in concentration camps and suicide in the following weeks and months
**Historical significance:** A decisive escalation from state discrimination to open, organised violence against the Jewish population

### What was Kristallnacht?

On the night of **9–10 November 1938**, the Nazi regime unleashed a state-directed wave of anti-Jewish violence throughout Germany, annexed Austria and the Sudetenland. Although Nazi propaganda presented the attacks as a spontaneous public reaction to the death of **Ernst vom Rath**, they were encouraged, coordinated and controlled by the Nazi leadership.

The attacks were carried out mainly by members of the **Sturmabteilung** (**SA**), the **Schutzstaffel** (**SS**) and the **Hitler Youth**, often dressed in civilian clothing. Some members of the German public joined the violence, while many others watched without intervening. Police officers were ordered not to stop the attacks, and fire brigades were generally instructed to protect neighbouring non-Jewish property rather than save burning synagogues.

> **Kristallnacht** marked a catastrophic change in Nazi policy. Since [**Adolf Hitler**](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-adolf-hitler) became Chancellor on **30 January 1933**, German Jews had been subjected to boycotts, dismissals, humiliation and increasingly restrictive laws. During the November Pogroms, persecution moved openly into mass violence, imprisonment and murder.

### Why was it called Kristallnacht?

The German word **Kristallnacht** means “Crystal Night” and refers to the shattered glass that covered the streets after thousands of Jewish-owned shops, businesses, homes and synagogues were attacked. The expression became widely known in English as the **Night of Broken Glass**.

Many historians and memorial institutions now prefer the terms **November Pogroms** or **Reich Pogrom Night**. These descriptions place greater emphasis on the victims, the organised violence and the destruction of Jewish life. The traditional name can sound almost decorative and may understate the terror, humiliation, imprisonment and deaths caused by the attacks.

### Escalating persecution before Kristallnacht

Anti-Jewish persecution had intensified steadily after the Nazi seizure of power in **1933**. Jewish civil servants, teachers, lawyers, doctors and business owners were gradually excluded from German public and economic life. Nazi propaganda, directed by [**Joseph Goebbels**](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-joseph-goebbels), portrayed Jews as enemies of Germany and encouraged widespread antisemitism.

On **15 September 1935**, the **Nuremberg Laws** deprived German Jews of citizenship and prohibited marriages and sexual relationships between Jews and people classified by the regime as being of “German or related blood.” Further decrees restricted education, employment, property ownership and participation in society.

> By **1938**, the regime was accelerating the forced emigration and economic dispossession of Jewish families. Jewish-owned businesses were transferred to non-Jewish ownership through a process known as **Aryanisation**, while passports, identity papers and personal freedoms became increasingly restricted.

### Ernst Röhm and the SA

The **Sturmabteilung (SA)**, commonly known as the Brownshirts, played a leading role in carrying out the violence during **Kristallnacht**. The organisation had originally been built into a powerful paramilitary force under the leadership of [**Ernst Röhm**](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-ernst-roehm). Although Röhm had been executed during the **Night of the Long Knives** in **1934**, the SA remained active and participated alongside the **SS**, the **Hitler Youth** and other Nazi organisations in the nationwide attacks against Germany's Jewish population.

### The Polenaktion

On **28 October 1938**, Nazi authorities launched the **Polenaktion**, forcibly arresting and expelling more than 12,000 Jews of Polish nationality from Germany. Families were removed from their homes with little warning and transported to the Polish frontier. Many became stranded in terrible conditions near the border town of Zbąszyń because Polish authorities initially refused to admit them.

Among those expelled were the parents and siblings of **Herschel Grynszpan**, a 17-year-old German-born Polish Jew living in Paris. After receiving a message describing his family's expulsion and suffering, Grynszpan went to the German embassy in Paris on **7 November 1938** and shot the diplomat **Ernst vom Rath**.

### The assassination of Ernst vom Rath

**Ernst vom Rath** was seriously wounded and died on **9 November 1938**. His death gave the Nazi leadership the pretext it had been waiting for to intensify its campaign against Germany's Jewish population.

That evening, **Adolf Hitler**, **Joseph Goebbels** and other senior Nazi officials were gathered in Munich to commemorate the failed **Beer Hall Putsch** of **8–9 November 1923**. In a speech to Nazi Party leaders, Goebbels announced vom Rath's death and claimed that anti-Jewish demonstrations had already begun. He indicated that the Nazi Party would not openly organise the violence but would not prevent it.

> Regional Nazi leaders understood the speech as authorisation to launch attacks. Orders were quickly transmitted to local party organisations, the **SA**, the **SS** and police authorities throughout the Reich.

### Heydrich's instructions

At **1:20 a.m. on 10 November 1938**, [**Reinhard Heydrich**](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-reinhard-heydrich), head of the Security Police and Security Service, sent a secret telegram containing detailed instructions for the pogrom. Police were ordered not to interfere with the destruction of Jewish property unless non-Jewish buildings were endangered. The instructions required the arrest of as many Jewish men as the concentration camps could hold, particularly those considered young, healthy and able to work. Archives and documents from synagogues and Jewish communities were to be seized, while foreign nationals and property belonging to non-Jews were to be protected.

> Heydrich worked under [**Heinrich Himmler**](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-heinrich-himmler), the leader of the **SS** and one of the principal architects of the Nazi police and concentration camp system. Their organisations turned the violence into a coordinated operation involving police forces, security services and camp authorities.

### Synagogues and prayer rooms destroyed

More than 1,400 synagogues and Jewish prayer rooms were ransacked, burned or demolished during the November Pogroms. Torah scrolls, religious objects, books, archives and works of art were dragged into the streets and publicly destroyed.

Many of the attacked buildings had served their communities for generations. Firefighters were frequently present but were ordered to prevent the flames from spreading to surrounding property rather than extinguish the burning synagogues. The destruction was therefore not the uncontrolled result of public disorder but part of an organised assault on Jewish religious and communal life.

### Jewish businesses, homes and schools

Approximately 7,500 Jewish-owned shops and department stores were looted and vandalised. Their windows were smashed, merchandise was stolen or destroyed, and interiors were wrecked. The broken glass that covered the pavements gave the pogrom its commonly used name.

Jewish homes were invaded and ransacked. Furniture, photographs, books and personal possessions were thrown into the streets or deliberately destroyed. Jewish schools, hospitals, cemeteries and community buildings were also attacked. Men, women and children were beaten, humiliated and terrorised in front of neighbours and bystanders.

### Mass arrests and concentration camps

More than **30,000 Jewish men** were arrested during and immediately after **Kristallnacht**. Most were deported to the [**Nazi concentration camp system**](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps), primarily [**Dachau**](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps/dachau), [**Buchenwald**](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps/buchenwald) and [**Sachsenhausen**](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps/sachsenhausen). This was the first mass incarceration of Jews based explicitly on their racial identity throughout Nazi Germany. Prisoners were beaten, abused, starved and subjected to brutal camp conditions. Hundreds died during their imprisonment or shortly after their release.

Many prisoners were released only after they or their families could demonstrate plans to leave Germany and surrender property or financial assets. The arrests therefore served both as an instrument of terror and as a means of accelerating forced Jewish emigration.

### The number of victims

The official Nazi report recorded 91 Jewish people murdered during the pogrom, but this figure represented only a fraction of the true human cost. It excluded many people who later died from their injuries, those murdered or fatally mistreated in concentration camps and those who took their own lives following the destruction of their homes, livelihoods and communities.

Modern historical research therefore places the total number of deaths in the hundreds. Some broader estimates, which include suicides and deaths resulting from imprisonment and persecution during the following months, are considerably higher. Because records were incomplete and Nazi authorities concealed many crimes, an exact total cannot be established.

### Göring's meeting and the collective fine

On **12 November 1938**, [**Hermann Göring**](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-hermann-goering) chaired a meeting of senior Nazi officials to coordinate the economic consequences of the pogrom. Rather than compensating the victims, the regime blamed Germany's Jewish community for the destruction inflicted upon it.

A collective fine of one billion Reichsmarks, known as the **Judenvermögensabgabe**, was imposed on German Jews as supposed “atonement” for the death of **Ernst vom Rath**. Insurance payments intended to cover damage to Jewish property were confiscated by the state, while Jewish owners were ordered to pay for repairs themselves.

> The meeting also accelerated the removal of Jews from German economic life. Jewish-owned businesses were forced into non-Jewish ownership, and further decrees excluded Jews from schools, theatres, cinemas and many public spaces.

### International response

The violence caused international outrage. Foreign diplomats and journalists reported the burning of synagogues, the destruction of businesses and the mass arrests. The pogrom made it increasingly difficult for foreign governments to ignore the violent nature of Nazi antisemitism.

The United States recalled its ambassador for consultations, while public protests took place in several countries. Britain expanded efforts that led to the **Kindertransport**, through which approximately 10,000 mainly Jewish children were admitted from Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland before the outbreak of the Second World War.

> Despite the condemnation, most countries did not significantly relax immigration restrictions. For many Jewish families attempting to escape Nazi rule, obtaining visas and finding countries willing to accept them remained extremely difficult.

### Jewish emigration after Kristallnacht

**Kristallnacht** destroyed any remaining hope among many German and Austrian Jews that persecution might eventually ease. Applications for visas increased sharply, and tens of thousands attempted to leave the Reich during the months that followed.

Emigration, however, often required families to surrender homes, businesses, savings and possessions. Nazi taxes and confiscations stripped many refugees of their wealth before they were permitted to leave. Older people, poorer families and those without foreign connections faced particularly severe obstacles.

### Kristallnacht and the Holocaust

**Kristallnacht** did not mark the beginning of the systematic mass murder of Europe's Jews, but it was one of the most important turning points on the path to the [**Holocaust**](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust). The pogrom demonstrated that the Nazi regime could organise mass violence, destroy Jewish property, arrest tens of thousands of people and impose collective punishment without significant resistance from German institutions.

After Germany invaded the Soviet Union on **22 June 1941**, the [**Einsatzgruppen**](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/einsatzgruppen) and other SS and police units began carrying out mass shootings of Jewish men, women and children behind the Eastern Front. These killings marked the transition from persecution and forced emigration to systematic mass murder.

> Senior officials including **Adolf Hitler**, **Heinrich Himmler**, **Reinhard Heydrich** and [**Adolf Eichmann**](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-adolf-eichmann) later played central roles in the persecution, deportation and murder of European Jews. The administrative coordination of the so-called **Final Solution** was discussed at the **Wannsee Conference** on **20 January 1942**.

### Historical significance

**Kristallnacht** exposed the true nature of the Nazi regime. It was not an isolated riot or uncontrolled public disturbance, but a coordinated pogrom enabled by the Nazi Party, police, security services and state authorities. The event shattered Jewish communities across Germany and Austria and showed that legal protection had effectively disappeared. It also revealed the willingness of many institutions to cooperate, remain silent or stand aside while neighbours were attacked and their places of worship destroyed.

> For these reasons, historians regard the November Pogroms as a decisive escalation in Nazi persecution: the moment when years of discriminatory legislation and propaganda erupted into nationwide organised violence, mass imprisonment and murder.

###  Principal Figure

 ![Herschel Grynszpan was a German-born Polish Jew whose shooting of German diplomat Ernst vom Rath in Paris on 7 November 1938 was exploited by the Nazi regime as the pretext for Kristallnacht.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/key_figures/Herschel-Grynszpan-was-a-Polish-Jew-whose-shooting-of-German-diplomat-Ernst-vom-Rath-in-Paris-on-7-November-1938-was-used-as-pretext-for-Kristallnacht-1938.jpg)Herschel Grynszpan was a German-born Polish Jew whose shooting of German diplomat Ernst vom Rath in Paris on 7 November 1938 was exploited by the Nazi regime as the pretext for Kristallnacht.

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###  Explore More

Explore more about the people, organisations and events connected to Kristallnacht.

- [The Holocaust](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust)
- [Einsatzgruppen](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/einsatzgruppen)
- [Concentration Camps](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps)
- [Buchenwald](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps/buchenwald)
- [Dachau](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps/dachau)
- [Sachsenhausen](https://www.normandy1944.info/holocaust/concentrationcamps/sachsenhausen)
- [Adolf Hitler](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-adolf-hitler)
- [Adolf Eichmann](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-adolf-eichmann)
- [Joseph Goebbels](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-joseph-goebbels)
- [Hermann Göring](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-hermann-goering)
- [Reinhard Heydrich](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-reinhard-heydrich)
- [Heinrich Himmler](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-heinrich-himmler)
- [Ernst Röhm](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/commanders/life-and-death-of-ernst-roehm)
- [World War II Timeline](https://www.normandy1944.info/home/timeline)

Kristallnacht the real story

###  Kristallnacht photographic evidence

Click the images to enlarge them

 [ ![A synagogue burns during Kristallnacht, November 1938.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/02-Burning-synagogue-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

A synagogue burns during Kristallnacht, November 1938.

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 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/02-Burning-synagogue-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

 [ ![Uniformed SA men ransack the interior of a synagogue during Kristallnacht.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/03-Uniformed-men-ransack-a-synagogue-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

Uniformed SA men ransack the interior of a synagogue during Kristallnacht.

Read more

 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/03-Uniformed-men-ransack-a-synagogue-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

 [ ![Religious books and Torah scrolls are removed from a synagogue during the pogrom.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/04-Religious-books-and-Torah-scrolls-removed-from-a-synagogue.jpg)

Religious books and Torah scrolls are removed from a synagogue during the pogrom.

Read more

 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/04-Religious-books-and-Torah-scrolls-removed-from-a-synagogue.jpg)

 [ ![Jewish property is destroyed during the coordinated attacks of Kristallnacht.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/05-Jewish-property-ransacked-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

Jewish property is destroyed during the coordinated attacks of Kristallnacht.

Read more

 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/05-Jewish-property-ransacked-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

 [ ![A shop window is smashed as onlookers watch during Kristallnacht.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/06-Shop-window-smashed-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

A shop window is smashed as onlookers watch during Kristallnacht.

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 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/06-Shop-window-smashed-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

 [ ![A damaged shop following the Kristallnacht attacks.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/07-Damaged-photography-shop-after-Kristallnacht.jpg)

A damaged shop following the Kristallnacht attacks.

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 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/07-Damaged-photography-shop-after-Kristallnacht.jpg)

 [ ![The ruins of a synagogue destroyed during Kristallnacht.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/08-Ruins-of-a-synagogue-destroyed-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

The ruins of a synagogue destroyed during Kristallnacht.

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 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/08-Ruins-of-a-synagogue-destroyed-during-Kristallnacht.jpg)

 [ ![A looted Jewish-owned shop after the November Pogroms.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/09-Looted-Jewish-owned-shop-after-Kristallnacht.jpg)

A looted Jewish-owned shop after the November Pogroms.

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 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/09-Looted-Jewish-owned-shop-after-Kristallnacht.jpg)

 [ ![Shattered shop windows following Kristallnacht, November 1938.](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/10-Shattered-shop-windows-after-Kristallnacht.jpg)

Shattered shop windows following Kristallnacht, November 1938.

Read more

 ](https://www.normandy1944.info/images/keyevents/kristallnacht/event_images/10-Shattered-shop-windows-after-Kristallnacht.jpg)

Kristallnacht photographic evidence

###  Kristallnacht key dates

**30 January 1933:** **Adolf Hitler** is appointed Chancellor of Germany, beginning the rapid expansion of the Nazi dictatorship and anti-Jewish persecution.
**15 September 1935:** The **Nuremberg Laws** deprive German Jews of citizenship and prohibit marriage between Jews and people classified as being of German or related blood.
**12 March 1938:** German forces enter Austria during the **Anschluss**, extending Nazi racial laws and persecution to Austrian Jews.
**28 October 1938:** During the **Polenaktion**, Nazi authorities expel more than 12,000 Jews of Polish nationality from Germany.
**7 November 1938:** **Herschel Grynszpan** shoots German diplomat **Ernst vom Rath** at the German embassy in Paris.
**9 November 1938:** **Ernst vom Rath** dies from his wounds. **Joseph Goebbels** addresses Nazi Party leaders gathered in Munich for the anniversary of the **Beer Hall Putsch**.
**9–10 November 1938:** The main violence of **Kristallnacht** takes place. Synagogues are burned, Jewish homes and businesses are destroyed, people are murdered, and more than 30,000 Jewish men are arrested.
**10 November 1938:** **Reinhard Heydrich** issues instructions governing the attacks and the mass arrest of Jewish men.
**12 November 1938:** **Hermann Göring** chairs a meeting that imposes a one-billion-Reichsmark fine on Germany's Jewish population and accelerates their exclusion from economic life.
**15 November 1938:** Jewish children are excluded from German state schools.
**2 December 1938:** The first **Kindertransport** arrives in Britain, beginning the rescue of thousands of mainly Jewish children from Nazi-controlled Europe.
**22 June 1941:** Nazi Germany invades the Soviet Union during **Operation Barbarossa**. The **Einsatzgruppen** begin mass shootings behind the Eastern Front.
**20 January 1942:** **Reinhard Heydrich** chairs the **Wannsee Conference**, where senior officials coordinate the deportation and murder of European Jews.

Kristallnacht key dates

###  Kristallnacht conclusion

Kristallnacht was far more than a single night of destruction. It marked the moment when years of discrimination and persecution gave way to open, organised violence against Germany's Jewish population. The attacks demonstrated that the Nazi regime was prepared to use terror on a nationwide scale while much of the outside world looked on with little more than protest. The shattered synagogues, looted businesses and thousands of arrests were not the end of the persecution but the beginning of a far darker chapter. The events of 9–10 November 1938 paved the way for the Holocaust, during which approximately six million Jewish men, women and children were systematically murdered. Kristallnacht remains one of the clearest warnings of how hatred, discrimination and state-sponsored violence can escalate when left unchecked.

Conclusion

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